Professor Amzad Hossain: http://www.psychevisual.com/Amzad_HOssain.html
বিসমিল্লাহ .....
মানুষ আল্লাহর খালিফা। খেলাফাতের দায়িত্ব যথাযথ ভাবে পালন করার উপরই মানুসের সামগ্রিক কল্লান ও শান্তি । বরতমানে খেলাফাত বাবস্থা কায়েম নেই। পশ্চিমা গণতন্ত্র আমাদের দেশে অচল । তা ছাড়া গনতন্ত্র আদিতেই একটী দুরনিতীগ্রস্থ শাসন বাবস্থা। যেখানে গনতন্ত্র থাক্বে সেখানে দুরনিতী থাক্তেই হবে । তাই সমাজের সরবস্তরে অধরম, সামাজিক ও অরথনৈতিক অপরাধ এবং বৈসম্মো সমাজ কে গ্রাস করে ফেলছে। আসুন! নিম্নক্ত খেলাফতি শাসনের এজেন্ডা বাস্তবায়নের মাদ্ধমে রাস্ট্রের সরবস্তরে সুশাসনের সারবিক প্রতিস্থা ও বাস্থবায়ন করে সুখ ও শান্তিময় জিবন বাবস্থা কায়েম করি। খেলাফাতি শাসন ও সমাজ বাবস্থা শুধু পারথিব প্রয়োজনেই নয়, আদ্ধাত্তিক উন্নতির জন্নও একটি সুন্দর জীবন বাবস্থা ।
দীর্ঘস্থায়ী জাতীয় করমসুচিঃ
১) ধর্ম ও সংস্কৃতির আমল
২) সবার জন্য মাছ ও গাছ
৩) কাজের জন্য বিদেশ যাত্রিদেরকে টাকা ধার
৪) ক্ষুদ্র ও কুটির শিল্পের অবাধ বিস্তার
৫) প্রতি গ্রামে কৃষি গোডাঊনসহ ৪ তালা বিল্ডিং স্থাপন করা এবং সেখান থেকে গ্রামের সমস্থ উন্নয়ন কারযক্রম পরিচালনা করা।
৬) ধনি দরিদ্রের জীবন যাত্রা মানের বৈষম্য কমান
৭) স্বনির্ভরকেন্দ্রিক বৈদেশিক নীতি
প্রাতিস্ঠানিক করমসুচিঃ
১) বাংলাদেসের প্রতি ওয়ারডে দেশ প্রেমিক, সৎ, যোগগো ও মেধা সম্পন্ন এক জন পুরুস ও মহিলা খলিফা মনোনয়ন এবং দেশ প্রেমিক, সৎ, জোগগ ও মেধা সম্পন্ন সদসস সংগরহ
২) পুরনাংগ জীবন বাবস্থা বাস্তবায়নে খেলাফাত প্রতিসঠার গুরুত্তো এবং কারয ক্রমের নিয়ম কানুন তুলে ধরা এবং সমাজ-জীবনের সরবস্তরে ইহা বাস্তবায়নের লক্ষে জনগণ কে সচেতন ও উদ্বুধধ করা অরথাত গ্রাম ভিত্তিক খেলাফত শাসন বাবস্থা কায়েম করা।
৩) সংখালঘুদের অধিকারঃ স্ংখালঘু সম্প্রদায় আমাদের পবিত্র আমানত বিধায় তাদের মৌলিক, মানবিক ও ধরমিয় অধিকার রক্ষা করা ।
৪) প্রতি ওয়ারডে, ইউনিয়নে ও থানায় এক্জ পুরুস ও এক্জন মহিলা খালিফাদ্বারা মজ্লিসের কারযক্রম চালু রাখা।
৫) দ্রিশশমান (visible) সুনিতি শিক্ষা এবং শিক্ষার ফলাফল নিশ্চিত করা ।
আগামি ইলেকসনে ভুমিকাঃ
উপরেল্লিখিত দীরঘাস্থায়ী করমসুচি ইলেক্সন মেনিফেস্টো হিসাবে বিএন্পি ও অন্নান্ন দলকে গ্রহন করানো এবং সেই সাথে নিম্নক্তো প্রস্তাব নিয়ে আলোচনা করা ও গ্রহণ করানো ।
বরতমানের মন্ত্রনালয় সমুহ্কে নিমনো লিখিত ১০ টি খেলাফত মন্ত্রনালয়ের অধিনে নিয়ে আসা এবং ১০ জন অবৈতনিক অরথাত্ খ্লিফায়ে রাশেদিনের যুগের নিয়ম অনুসারে ভাতা ভুক্ত খলিফার দ্বারা পরিচালনা করা। খলিফারা শুহধুমাত্র খেলাফাত মজ্লিস এবং অন্নান্ন ইসলামি দল হইতে মনোনীত হৈবে । মন্ত্রী মনোনীত হইবে নিরবাচিত সাংসদের ভিতর হৈতে। প্রয়োজনে সুশীল সমাজ হৈতে ও মন্ত্রী নেওয়া যাবে।
গ্রাম বা ওয়ারড পরযায়ে সমস্ত উন্নয়ন করমকানড পুরুষ ও মহিলা খলিফার নেত্রাধীন কমিটি বা মজ্লিস দ্বারা পরিচালত হইবে।
প্রস্তাবিত ১০ টি খেলাফত মন্ত্রনালয়ঃ
1 Chief Khalifa Ministry প্রধান খলিফার মন্ত্রনালয় (আরমী, বরডার, পুলিশ, সমুদ্র, আকাশ, দুরযোগ বেবস্থাপনা)
2. Basic Needs Ministry নিত্ত প্রয়জনিয় মন্ত্রনালয় (খাদ্দ, বস্ত্র, বাসস্থান, স্বাস্থ, জাকাত প্রদান )
3. Good Governance সুশাসন মন্ত্রনালয় (সুনিতি প্রতিশ্ঠা, সারভিস রুল, নিয়োগ বদ্লি, পদোন্নতি ও পুরস্কার)
4. Local Income and Expenditure মন্ত্রনালয় (স্থানিয় আয় ও বায়, জাকাত আদায় ও প্রদান )
5. Export and Import রপ্তানি ও আম্দানি মন্ত্রনালয় (রপ্তানী আয় বায়, বৈদশিক অফিসের আয় বায়, সেবামুলক আয় বায়, জিনিসপত্র আম্ম্দানি রপ্তানি ও বিদেশ পাঠানোর জন্ন মানব সম্পদ উন্নয়ন )
6. Education শিক্ষা মন্ত্রনালয় (প্রাথমিক, সেকেন্ডারি, কারিগরি, মাদ্রাসা, মেডিকেল, বিশ্ববিদ্দালয় ...)
7. Environment and Communication পরিবেশ ও যোগাযগ মন্ত্রনালয় (বন, জীব জানোয়ার ও মাছ সংরক্ষন, ঔষ্ধি গাছ, বন উন্নয়ন, হাইওয়ে, নৌযান ও টেলেকম উন্নয়ন )
8. Sustainable Rural development: টেকসই পল্লি উন্নয়ন (জলাশয়, ক্কৃষি, মাছ, গাছ, রাস্তা, সেতু, বাসস্থান, পল্লী উন্নয়ন ভবন ....)
9. Urbanization and Industry নগরায়ন ও শিল্প মন্ত্রনালয় (কুটীর, খুদ্র, মাঝারি ও বৃহত শিল্প, বেঙ্কিং , ইনসিওরেন্স, নগরায়ন ...)
10. Law and Culture আইন ও সংস্ক্রিতি মন্ত্রনালয় (সিভিল, ফৌজ্দারি, নিরবাচন, সংসদ, গনতন্ত্র উন্নয়ন, ধরমো, বয়স্ক, নারী, মিডিয়া ও প্রচার ...)
দশ জন খলিফার অধীনে যতগুলি অধীনস্ত মন্ত্রনালয় বা মন্ত্রী থাকবে প্রত্তেক টি মন্ত্রনালয়ের সুশাসন, সুনিতি, সততা এবং
দক্ষতা নিশ্চিত করার জন্য খলিফাগণ প্রয়জনীয় বেতনধারী করমচারী নিয়োগ দিতে পারিবেন ।
ISLAMIC STEWARDSHIP FOR SUSTAINABILITY
ABSTRACT
‘Stewardship’ is a multi-religious concept though the true spirit of stewardship is yet to be realised, especially with respect to sustainability management. The paper aims to examine the Islamic perspective of stewardship. Islam reveals stewardship as a covenant between mankind and the Creator. The covenant attaches obligation to human to acquire the attributes of the Creator to nurture nature in the capacity of ‘Khalifa’ (steward, vice-gerent) of the Creator. According to Islamic traditions including Sufi stories and Baul songs, it is human obligation to manage individual, social, economic and ecological sustainability. This makes the Muslims to position stewardship in the central themes of the creation of human.
The paper depicts how stewardship has to be achieved through acquiring values and reinforcing spirituality. It attempts to understand Islamic stewardship in light of how it can contribute to sustainability integrity by way of meeting people’s basic needs, increasing contentment and happiness with less, promoting socio-political and spiritual unity amid diverse cultures, underpinning social coherence, inspiring people for living simply in order to sustain economic solvency, and imparting mankind that ecologically sustainable development is the key means to holistic sustainability.
The paper concludes that amid growing unsustainability around, the integrated religious stewardship as practiced in Bangladesh where uneducated rural folks are distinctly better stewards than their elite counterpart, which also appears to be the case elsewhere, can be an example to follow.
KEYWORDS: Bangladesh, Baul, character, integrity, Quran, values
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Understanding Stewardship
‘Stewardship’ as a pluralistic religious concept appears in several religions in diverse synonyms. In Christianity human is given dominion over the earth, but must treat the earth with respect. Stewardship is management of the Earth and its resources in accord with Christian Ethics. Hinduism teaches that stewardship is right conduct to the Earth and its resources, and all who live on the earth - minerals, plants, animals and humans. Jainism-driven stewardship is non-injury to all living things; this includes the Earth and all its resources. Jainism has a 2000 year record of living with non-injury and no greed about the Earth and its resources. In Buddhism, compassion for all creatures and all living things must prevail. The Buddha spent his life searching for the ending of human suffering, eventually teaching that a balance must be established between self-destruction and self-indulgence. In Judaism, human is given the dominion over the Earth in the Torah; but God also says that everything that is created is good. So human must stay in the covenant with God and practice Talmud Torah teaches the Law of Moses with respect to pollution, waste, harm and ecological damage. In Islam, Muslims follow the teachings of the Quran as practiced by the Prophet and his bio-spiritual successors. [1]
Focusing on Islamic stewardship it appears that stewardship is the trustee of God in carrying out His commandments in relation to social and environmental sustainability management. The Quran regards human as God’s steward (Khalifa) on earth, possessing an innate disposition or capacity (fitrah) to know God and act righteously (Barr, 2002:121). Stewardship as a social science instrument currently appears to receiving much emphasis in the academic as well as political and business arena. The reality of human triggered global unsustainability scenarios substantiated by climate change, depletion of natural resource-base, unbalanced population growth and ever-widening poverty and pollution, urges for stewardship intervention as a possible solution. This suggests that the unsustainability factors in context are occurring due to anti-stewardship human intervention to nature and to human themselves. In other words, unsustainable intervention to nature is resulting in utter degradation of all natural resources, while mankind is ruining themselves in demographic, moral and economic aspects of social sustainability in many parts of the globe, including the West.
This essay depicts Islamic stewardship as an agent for sustainability re-fix by way of individual, social, economic and ecologically sustainable development. It focuses stewardship as a religio-spiritual tool for holistic sustainability management in terms of conservation, restoration, regeneration of natural and social capital. From Islamic standpoint, stewardship is, indeed, an act of Jihad (striving) against the norms of human’s egocentric nature. Hewer (2006:153) reveals that in order to counter egocentric tendency, each believer is required to make jihad a necessary compulsory duty. This form of jihad is known as the ‘greater jihad’ in Islamic tradition - the constant struggle against the wayward self.
Mankind differs diversely in their attitude and values (mannerism) resulting in both good and bad practices i.e. sustainable and unsustainable activities. Orr (1994:7) observes that in a typical day the earth loses 116 square miles of rain forest, or about an acre a second; 72 square miles to encroaching deserts, 40 to 250 species lost or threatened; and add 2,700 tons of chlorofluro carbons and 15 million tons of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere. The writer also stresses that many things on which our future health and prosperity depend are in dire jeopardy. Climate instability, diminishing resilience and productivity of natural systems, depleting beauty of the natural world, and decaying biological diversity - all these are not from the work of uneducated people. Rather, it is largely the results of work by people with high educational degrees including PhDs.
In order to stop this situation and also to do proper protection, regeneration, restoration and conservation of natural and human resources, the role of stewardship integrity, as advocated by Islam, needs to be practiced by all. MacCracken et al.(2008: 263) maintain that Islam teaches us that we should be cautious and vigilant against damages from pollution and global warming. From an Islamic point of view, protecting the environment to restore normalcy in climate change requires deep awareness of the elements that affect life on our planet, ensuring the continuation of life by avoiding pollution, and using the power of religion to channel human activity into these productive areas. All these responses will be required in order to confront the challenge of climate change in a morally responsible manner. Stewardship includes all these human qualities integrated in its philosophy, principles and practices.
In sum, it can be said that stewardship, by definition, is inherently meant to look after someone or something for somebody. It is an empowerment from God that a steward has been entrusted. The stewardship approach is applicable to all humans and non-human beings and things. Thus the approach is of two-prong: human management is to provide goods and services to humans, while the other is to use the environments for the acquisition of that goods and services for human. Hence, a good stewardship is respecting another person’s space, self-esteem or self-worth (Smith, 2005:22).
ISLAMIC STEWARDSHIP DEVELOPMENT
The Islamic code of life is focused largely to deal with stewardship development lessons and guidelines that inspire people to acquire knowledge to generate sustainability-positive belief, values, spirituality and practices. The Quran says,
"Allah will exalt the grades of those who have become believers among you and who have been given knowledge (Quran 58:11)."
Widely known saying of the prophet also reveals:
"Acquisition of knowledge is obligatory to all the Muslims".
Islam recognizes knowledge in two categories: knowledge gathered and knowledge generated. Renard (2004) agues: “Gathered knowledge is useless if it does not include knowledge generated; just as the sun is useless when the eye is incapable of receiving illumination” (p. 205). Observation of the signs of God helps acquire generated knowledge and the emphasis on such observation frequently appears in the Quran in different contexts. Thus do we explain the signs by various (symbols): that they may say, "Thou hast taught (us) diligently," and that We may make the matter clear to those who know (Quran, 6:105). And of His signs is the creation of the heavens and the earth, and the difference of your languages and colours. Lo! herein indeed are portents for men of knowledge (Quran, 30:22). The word “sign” appears 56 times in 52 verses of the Quran.
Islam asks people to know from who know. “When you do not know, then inquire of the people of recollection” (Quran, 16:43; 21:7). Renard (2004:127) points out: “ People of recollection when asked questions by public, God inspire them with right guidance and bestow wisdom”. Islam also stresses on to follow the footstep of the blessed and ever-living personages as the virtuous means to develop character towards stewardship integrity. This has been emphasized in the opening chapter of the Quran: “Show us the straight path, The way of those on whom Thou hast bestowed Thy Grace, those whose (portion) is not wrath, and who go not astray” (Quran 1:6-7). These are the people with the highest stewardship qualities, and Quran honour them as immortal, ever living. "And do not say - they are dead - of those who died in the path of Allah. No, never; rather they are alive" (Quran 2:154). "And no, do not even think that they are dead, those who are killed in the path of Allah. No, no, never - rather they are alive. They are getting sustenance from their Lord" (Quran 3:169). “And We caused Jesus, son of Mary, to follow in their footsteps, confirming that which was (revealed) before him in the Torah, and We bestowed on him the Gospel wherein is guidance and a light, confirming that which was (revealed) before it in the Torah - a guidance and an admonition unto those who ward off (evil)” (Quran, 5:46).
Muslims find the Quran a complete code of life (Murata and Chittick, 1994: pp. 182-184). Dahl (1997) considers Islam as a combination of law, religion and morality, providing a comprehensive framework for living of the individuals, families and communities. The Quran has lessons that can constitute a curriculum for stewardship education for sustainable development practices. The house of Islam rests on pillars that intrinsically link sustainable management of natural resources and socio-economic sustainability. Jihad or the personal struggle to achieve stewardship integrity as a way of living is also seen as a pillar of Islam (Murata and Chittick, 1994: pp. 21-22) and is at the core of the practice in maintaining peaceful sustainability conditions devoid of living with unsustainable consumption patterns.
2.1 Belief:
As culture is constituted of beliefs, attitudes and practices, there are no people without beliefs (Szostak, 2005: 103). Islamic belief is a belief in the unity of the totality of diverse sustainability scenarios. An important aspect of belief is the understanding that although humans are the “trustees” of nature, they do not possess all the supremacy to create, change or undo things. There are powerful forces beyond them, which have the capacity to drastically influence the outcomes of people’s actions, such as climate change and biodiversity depletion.
Belief in the Creator is the most important incentive to acquire stewardship righteousness. The Quran says: ‘It is not righteousness that ye turn your faces towards East or West; but it is righteousness – to believe in Allah and the Last Day, and the Angels, and the Book, and the Messengers; to spend of your substance, out of love for Him, for your kin, for orphans, for the needy, for the wayfarer, for those who ask, and for the ransom of slaves; to be steadfast in prayer, and practice regular charity; to fulfill the contracts which ye have made; and to be firm and patient, in pain (or suffering) and adversity, and throughout all periods of panic. Such are the people of righteousness, the God-fearing’ (Quran 2:177).
2.2 Values
Values inspire practices. In order to be a righteous steward, values need to be acquired, for values guide people in their thinking and enable them to pursue actions that are pleasing to the Creator i.e. pro-sustainability actions. Islamic stewardship values are similar to Jewish and Christian values as they are all from the same source - God. However, to Islam the values are like a street directory that can guide people to the ‘right path’, a path to holistic sustainability. Among others, some of the core values that are required for stewardship practices include respect and kindness, modesty, justice, charity, honesty and truthfulness, forgiveness and patience.
All these values are at the core of traditional Islamic stewardship culture and guides human in all their relations and dealings - with the Creator, with people, with the environment and with themselves. Understanding a traditional perspective of values enables one to gain an insight into the ‘grass roots’ aspects of stewardship of human obligation to the sustainability of fellow beings and all creation.
2.3 Observation
Observation connotes inspection, testing, investigation, experiment, self-observation, introspection. To help develop stewardship, the Quran is constantly pointing to observe the diverse phenomena in nature for evidence and answer to questions with regards to developing stewardship integrity for holistic sustainability management. The Quran reveals: And pursue not that of which thou hast no knowledge; for every act of hearing, or of seeing or of (feeling in) the heart will be enquired into (on the Day of Reckoning) (Quran 17:36).
2.4 The development of character
Education for human development without an emphasis on character development has particularly no value in Islam. The Islamic concept of character, as Yunanto, et al. put it, is rooted in humility towards the Creator, love towards fellow creatures, perseverance at the time of affliction, honesty, decency, uprightness, courage to say the truth, a balanced attitude towards issues that involve human emotions (Yunanto et al. 2005:208). Character i.e. personality integrity building is considered as an effective and action oriented way of underpinning stewardship spirituality in Islam. Integrated character development exercise implies that the teacher usually adapts methodology far beyond from that of formal education. Under the guidance of a Sufi teacher, a shaykh or shaykha (fem.), the student might be given a particular name on which to meditate by many repetitions each day. This might be a quality that the teacher sees to be lacking in this individual. Someone lacking in patience, might be given the word As-Sabr (the Patient One) – one of God’s name - to repeat a thousand times each day to develop the quality of patience (Hewer, 2006:77).”
Writers have made claims that today’s character development is devoid of the approaches to instil values (Halstead and Taylor : 1996). Consequently, students are developed with knowledge about various things, but without their character development i.e. development of personality integrity. The Islamic purpose of education is to develop the character of students. The emphasis is on the ‘acquisition’ of qualities by observing the signs of the Creator in His creation as repeatedly appear in the Quran. There are specific areas of focus for nurturing character development that includes control of personal Nafs (temptation), social harmony and ecological aspects of sustainability. Renard (2004) observes that according to Islamic view of the world “Your wealth is not wide enough to encompass the people, so let your cheerful countenance and beautiful character surround them” (p. 243). This suggests that character development helps a steward to instil self-reliance, courage, endurance, determination, and the ability to deal with adversity and fortune. Holm and Bowker (1994) find that these qualities in stewardship character inspire Muslims to live in equilibrium with nature and their environment (p. 90). They take seriously the Quranic observation that: ‘Corruption has appeared on land and sea because of what human hands have done’ (ibid. 97; Quran 30:41).
Islamic way of character development starts from childhood years. The parents, out of their religious obligation, are required to make intention every morning to raising their children to be a successful vicegerent of God who will resultantly help build up a sustainable world for the present as well as for future generations. So, it is the parents’ duty to present themselves as vicegerents depicting a sustainable model of human being to follow up. Yust et al. reveal that according to Islam children are born sinless and viewed as precious gifts from God and need to be taken care of and protected by their parents and their surrounding communities. “The primary way for children to attain spiritual development is to observe the personal spiritual practices of adults in their surrounding communities. Therefore, Islam not only gives these people the responsibility for the spiritual well-being of children but also makes them accountable” (2006:pp. 70-71).
The anti-thesis aspects of spiritual education is crucial for achieving stewardship integrity, for a steward must make his/her judgement based on both sides of an object. According to Sufi saying: ‘sometimes the truth lies in the opposite’. All these suggest that Islam, by way of its strong stewardship spirituality and practices, can provide a panacea for fixing sustainability mishaps of the day in a sustainable way.
3. LIVING STEWARDSHIP : BANGLADESH PERSPECTIVES
The syncretistic religious traditions of Bangladesh overwhelmed by Sufi Islam manifest the practice of stewardship. The Sharia literature, mysticism, sayings and doings of Sufis and saints, including the mystic Baul[2] singer-philosophers of the country, practice stewardship manifesting a lifestyle that can reinforce regeneration of ecological goods. The Bauls are utterly environmentalists by their spirituality and practice; their spontaneously revealed songs are truly soul stirring and take the listeners closest to nature. Their stewardship is reflected through simple, natural, unembellished lifestyle rooted in the soil of environmentally peculiar Bangladesh. They advocate for a non-violent and non-destructive deployment of values. Bauls are unlettered, but the messages they convey through their innumerable spontaneously composed songs, however, cannot but portray them as supreme Pundits (scholars). The impact that they have on listeners (Bangla speaking people all over the globe) in shaping behaviour and values is enormous. Despite the fact that the majority of the Baul-philosophers come from an Islamic background, they display a religious indifference or neutrality of Sufism, which suggests that the practice of religious secularism by “people who understand” can also reinforce the proper management of natural resources (Hossain, 1995).
The Baulism inspired stewardship fulfils religious unity within the cultural diversity of Bangladesh, which is one of the most important goals of the Islamic messages (Mondal, 1997:47). In regards to the unity within the cultural diversity, the Quran also reveals: For each We have appointed a divine law and a traced-out way. Had Allah willed He could have made you one community. But that He may try you by that which He hath given you (He hath made you as ye are). So vie one with another in good works. Unto Allah ye will all return, and He will then inform you of that wherein ye differ (Quran 5:48).
3.1 Sustainability Stewardship for Bangladesh
The Baul philosophers of Bangladesh view sustainability of the country as a dynamic entity generated by the synergies between stewardship attitudes to social growth and managing ecological footprint. They discard economic growth, which is an increase in quantity, cannot be sustainable indefinitely on a finite planet (Costanza et al. 1991). Conversely, the writers also point out that economic development, which is an improvement in the quality of life without causing an increase in the quantity of consumed resources could be sustainable. Over-extraction of finite resources for over-consumption in order to lead wasteful lifestyle is repeatedly prohibited in Islam (Quran 2:60, 2:205, 5:64, 7:56, 28:4). Islam also prohibits the generation of growth in money by charging interest or excessive profit. Islam considers money just as a convenient medium of exchange. Its use as a commodity to lend or hoard for excessive profit can injuriously deprive others and is strictly prohibited. People can have surplus money to lend to those in need, but with profit sharing, not with fixed rate interest or high profit. For economic health, money ought to circulate in a community like blood. In the case of piling up of wealth, the Quran warns: “Who pileth up wealth and layeth it by, Thinking that his wealth would make him last for ever! By no means! He will be sure to be thrown into That Hell which Breaks to Pieces” (Quran 104:2-4). Living simply and without greed for more than required is the standard of maintaining economic sustainability in Islam.
Fluehr-Lobban argues that poverty-like simple way of life in Islam is not for the sake of hardship (2004:188), but for the sake of managing long-term stewardship sustainability within the regenerative capacity of renewable resources. In many ways attempts coming from outside Islam directed towards what is known as “poverty alleviation” clash with the fundamental Muslim values and effectively push countries including Bangladesh, towards unsustainability (Hossain and Marinova, 2005).
The Baul tradition supports a self-reliant way of living with family and social and environmental bondage: “The less you have, the more you are”. Gandhi expanded this concept to incorporate a simple life style asserting that nature produces enough for our wants, and if only everybody took enough for him/herself and nothing more, there would be no people dying of starvation (Kripalani, 1965: 130). Lorey (2003: 44) also talks about achieving satisfaction with less and with what you already have.
Ecological sustainability exists where the natural resource-base and ecosystem health are not negatively affected by development. It is believed that everything God created is an essential part of the sustainability management by nature .Islam stresses that, as the Torah does, even things which appear trivial to you such as flies, fleas and mosquitoes, they are also part of the creation, and God executes His operations through the agency of all of them, even through a snake or frogs (Mulder 2006: 37). The writer also explains that as recently as in the 1960s, most people perceived the natural environment as infinite until Rachel Carson’s book Silent Spring exposed that the opposite is the case (ibid:15). God informs human beings of the rights of animals by comparing them (animals) to humans: There is not an animal (that lives) on the earth, nor a being that flies on its wings, but (forms of) communities like you (Quran 6:38). Contrasting Western scientific understanding of the world with that of the Islamic belief, Fazlun and O’Brien (1992:42) argue that in Western science theories are always open to rejection and change while Muslim scientists explain the “natures” of created things in terms of their supernatural origin. This emphasises the sacred character of creation. To show lack of respect for nature is tantamount to show lack of respect for the Creator.
CONCLUSION
Islam requires human attitudes to be entirely in line with stewardship principles in carrying out sustainability practices. Attitude towards maintaining sustainable footprint is an example. Due to a lack of this stewardship attitude, the earth is being overburdened. In 2003 the global human population’s ecological footprint overshot the planet’s capacity by the equivalent of 0.25 Earths (Global Footprint Network, 2008). In other words, we needed 1.25 planet Earths to meet the human demand on nature if we were to remain within its regenerative capacity. Not surprisingly the current ecological crisis cannot be met without a change in human priorities, values (attitudes) and lifestyles. To accomplish this there is a need for holistic stewardship ethos, which the Islam tradition can offer (Edwards, 2006:100).
Islam warns the viceroys against over-extraction of degradable natural resources and over-consumption. According to the Tradition: “Your wealth is not wide enough to encompass the people, so let your cheerful countenance and beautiful character surround them”. One of the ancestors in faith said: “A little humility suffices for a lot of action, and a little spiritual science suffices for a lot of knowledge” (Renard, 2004:243). Islamic stewardship strictly prohibits the belongings of extravagance: “Who pileth up wealth and layeth it by, Thinking that his wealth would make him last for ever! By no means! He will be sure to be thrown into That Hell which Breaks to Pieces” (Quran,104:2-4).
Since Islam has authorised human as God’s Khalifa on earth, stewardship inherently requires human to acquire integrity in values from 99 virtues of God. This suggests that Islam has a code of outcome-based stewardship development guidelines. The guidelines include stewardship education central to belief, values, spirituality and practice, which inherently requires the teachers to be qualified with stewardship knowledge, guidelines and practices to transmit and demonstrate how to integrate stewardship into people’s lifestyle management. Islam as a religion contains a range of guidelines and prescriptions for people to live in a way that does not destroy the finite natural resources and to live a life of modest consumption. Islam also emphasises one of the main principles of sustainability i.e. one should contribute to the common and not just to the private good (Mulder, 2006).
In order to achieve stewardship integrity and integrate it into one’s lifestyle requires two types of education. One is about general code of life relating to socio-economic aspects of moral values such as belief, respect, honesty, truthfulness, modesty etc. The other deals with the inter-relationships between human and rest of nature. Islamic mystics (Sufis, Pirs and Baul gurus) are the guides for stewardship education. A renowned mystic of Bangladesh namely Hason Raja expresses his stewardship spirit, thus:
People say, they say, my house is no good.
What house will I build,
There's nothing here
I’ll build a house, But how long will I stay for?
I look in the mirror,
I see grey hair that I have.
Thinking of this,
Hason Raja hasn’t built a house.
Where will Allah take and keep him,
For that reason he cries.
If Hason Raja knew, how long he would live for,
then he would have built his house and rooms in many colours.
Finally, what we witness around the world nowadays are the differences in lifestyles and value systems resulting in outcomes that are drastically contrary to Islamic stewardship oriented way of life.
REFERENCES
Book
Arkoun, M. 1999. Rethinking Islam – Common Questions, Uncommon Answers, translated and edited by R.D. Lee, Westview Press, Oxford.
Barr, Michael D. 2002. Cultural Politics and Asian Values. Routledge, London.
Chittick, W.C. 1983. Sufi Path of Love: The Spiritual Teachings of Rumi, State University of New York Press, Albany
Costanza, R., Daly, H.E., Bartholomew, J.A. 2001. Goals, Agenda and Policy Recommendations for Ecological Economics, in Costanza, R. (ed.) Ecological Economics, Columbia University Press, New York, pp. 1-21
Cragg, Kenneth. 1976. The Wisdom of the Sufis. Sheldon Press, London.
Dahl, T.S. 1997. The Muslim Family, Scandinavian University Press, Boston
Edwards, D. 2006. Ecology at the Heart of Faith – the Changing of Hearth that Leads to a New Way of Living on Earth, Orbis Books, New York
Fluehr-Lobban, Carolyn. 2004. Islamic Societies and Practices. University Press of Florida, Florida.
Global footprint network Global Footprint Network. 2008. Humanity’s Footprint 1961-2003, www.footprintnetwork.org/gfn_sub.php?content=global_footprint, accessed 16 March 2008
Halstead, J.M. & Taylor, M.J. 1996. Values and values education in schools. In Halstead, J.M, & Taylor, M.J. (Eds). Values in education and education in values (pp. 3-14). London: Falmer Press.
Hossain, A. 1995. Mazar Culture in Bangladesh. Ph.D. Thesis. Murdoch University, Perth, Australia, 419 p.
Hewer, C.T.R. 2006. Understanding Islam – The First Ten Steps, SCM Pres, London.
Holm, Jean and Bowker, John. 1994. Attitudes To Nature. Pinter Publishers, London.
Huckle, J., Sterling, S. 1996. Education for Sustainability, Earthscan Publication, London.
Johnson, M.A., K. Jung & W. Schweiker. 2006. ‘Introduction.’ In: W. Schweiker, M.A. Johnson & K. Jung (eds), Humanity before God: Contemporary faces of Jewish, Christian, and Islamic ethics, 1-18. Minneapolis, MN: Augsburg Fortress Press.
Kripalani, K. 1965. All Men Are Brothers: Life and Thoughts of Mahatma Gandhi as Told in His Own Words. Columbia University Press, New York.
Lorey, D.E. 2003. Global Environmental Challenges of the Twenty-First Century: Resources, Consumption and Sustainable Solutions. SR Books, Delaware.
MacCracken, Michael C., Moore, Frances, and Topping, John C. Jr. 2008. Sudden and Disruptive Climate Change – exploring the real risk and how can avoid them. Earthscan, London.
Mittal, Sushil and Thursby, Gene, eds. 2006. Religions of South Asia – An Introduction. Routledge, London.
Mondal, S.R. 1997. Educational Status of Muslims – Problems, Prospects and Priorities. Inter-India Publication, New Delhi
Mulder, K. 2006. Sustainable Development for Engineers: A Handbook and Resource Guide. Greenleaf Publishing, Sheffield, UK.
Murata, S. and Chittick, C.W. 1994. The Vision of Islam, Paragon House, New York.
Orr, David W. 1994. Earth in Mind – On education. Environment, and the human prospect. Island Press, Washington.
Peters, R. 1979. Islam and Colonialism. Mouton Publishers, The Hague.
Quran. Any translation.
Renard, John. 2004. Knowledge of God in Classical Sufism: Fundation of Islamic Mystical Theology. Paulist Press. New York.
Smith, George P. II .2005. The Christian Religion and Biotechnology – A Search for Principled Decision-making. Springer, The Netherlands.
Sweet, William and Feist, Richard. 2007. Religion and the Challenges of Science. Ashgate Publishing, England.
Szostak, R., 2005. Unifying Ethics, University Press of America, New York.
Thornhill, J. (2000) Modernity. Christianity’s Estranged Child Reconstructed, W. B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, Grand Rapids, Michigan
Yust, Karen Marie; Johnson, Aostre N.; Sasso., Sandy Eisenberg; and Roehlkepartain (eds). 2006. Nurturing Child and Adolescent Spirituality – Perspectives from the World’s Religious Traditions. Rowman and Littlefield Publishers, Inc. London.
Yunanto, S; Wasik, A; Harun, B; Effendy, F; Nuryanti, S; and Hidayat S. 2005. Islamic Education in South and Soth East Asia. The RIDEP Institute, Jakarta.
Conference
Hossain, A., Marinova, D. (2005). Poverty Alleviation – a Push towards Unsustainability in Bangladesh? Presented at the International Conference on Engaging Communities 14-17 August, Brisbane. In Proceedings of the International Conference on Engaging Communities. Brisbane, Queensland: Queensland Department of Main Roads [E-text type]. Retrieved 18 July 2010 from www.engagingcommunities2005.org/abstracts/Hossain-Amzad-final.pdf
[1] http://religion.answers.wikia.com/wiki/What_other_religions_believe_stewardship_is
[2] Bauls-philosophers are the mystics of Bangladesh. They educate people with their spontaneous songs that include metaphysics, religio-philosophy, socio-economic and political issues, solutions to environmental problems and naturalism. The Bauls’ way of stewardship with happiness and simple lifestyle is the national model of lifestyle to follow by others. They are highly respected in Bangladesh for their voluntary contributions to Bangladesh culture.
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I’m Harun Baul Speaking (part 21)
-Md. Amzad Hossain
I’m Harun Baul Speaking (part 20), published on March 13, 2012 was paused with Lalon Fakir’s revelation:
Tomra sab Kalifa role, Je ja bujhe dio bole.
Osoth obhakta jona, Gupta bhed tare bolona
Bolileo se manibena, Karbe ahangkari.
Nekton bandara joto, ved pore auliya hoto
nadanera shul chachito, Monsur tar sabed ase.
Lalon Fakir
(The Prophet (sm) instructed the Khalifas to advise the general people in accordance with their levels of understanding. The dishonest and non-devotees should not be told about the higher truth, for they are likely to reject it. All the righteous people can become Auliya (Godly) by understanding the higher truth while the fools are engaged in sharpening their spears. The case of Mansur (Hallaj) bears witness to it (whom they killed).
Guru Aziz Shah Fakir (104) relates the above notion of the Prophet Muhammad to his Khalifas in political terms of the Khelafat governance. It clearly suggests that under the Khelafat system of good governance, the citizens should be dealt with in accordance with their level of understanding. This wisdom is also equally applicable in the cases of dealing with economic and other needs of the people of a given time and place. Linking the concept to the case of present governance in Bangladesh, the guru recognises a lack of good governance (Sushason) that persists at the heart of the present untenable situation. He emphasises good governance as the jugular vein of a nation; and the practice of Khelafat’s good governance duly powered by the Islamic deliberative democracy can revitalize the sharply depleting happiness, traditional self-reliance, religiosity, patriotism, family and social bondage and eco-spirituality. The Khelafat system of governance is therefore a sustainable alternative that can transform Bangladesh to be (re)branded as the happiest nation on earth.
Bangladesh being predominantly a fertile land of population growth, agriculture and fisheries, it is a superior country for long-term sustainability. But unfortunately, the country has hardly experienced good governance that could potentially allow for political stability, and foster the human-nature interconnectedness through sustainable development. The guru stresses that the rising degradation of natural resources, water crisis, the widening gaps between the rich and poor, corruption, crimes and gender conflicts, are largely due to persisting mal-governance. The guru also stresses that politicians’ commitment to good governance has not been possible because it is integrally connected to people’s values system; and the current political as well as cultural values system of Bangladesh is at its worst. This values system is severely inflicted with selfishness and self-centricity that is intensely opposed to share things with fellow beings and care for natural resources. This disconnection of sharing and caring leads people to disengage themselves from their spiritual core of self-reliance and happiness.
Against this backdrop, the guru explores ways to restore just governance within the framework of the Khelafat system as was implemented by the Prophet Muhammad and the first four Khalifas of Islam (Abu Bakr, Omar, Osman and Ali). The guru asserts that the Khelafat system can create competent, honest, responsible and patriotic civil servants, activists and other actors. In this context, the guru adds that a Khalifa as a human representative or Vicegerent of God on earth can be a person of any colour, culture or religion, who, in congruence with the Quranic revelation, can coulour oneself with the colour of God. This means that a Khalifa has to acquire collective knowledge, lessons and wisdom for governance purposes and also for transmitting them to other people in order to maintain individual, familial, social, economic, religio-cultural, political and ecological sustainability. Then, how to acquire diverse knowledge for achieving Khalifaship (stewardship) integrity in order to keep natural system healthy for human sustainability? Most religions talk about acquiring diverse knowledge. The knowledge of nurturing nature and the realization of human’s absolute dependence on eco-resources intrinsically help acquire the wisdom for understanding the inner meaning of humanity (i.e. know thyself). The notion of human as the Ashraful Mukhlukat (the best of creation) is embedded in this concept.
The notion of ‘Know Thyself’, which has been propagated by the great people of most religions throughout the history of mankind is integrally linked to the inter-connectedness between human and nature. This view suggests us to ‘know thyself’ in terms of our surrounding environmental manifestations. Considering this, most teachers teach that ‘know thyself’ require a pathway to know: who you are, who is your Sustainer, where you were, why you are here, where you go hereafter, what elements you are built of, what is the purpose of your life, what is your position in the environment, and what role you are required to play for your survival amidst other beings and non-beings for now and for tomorrow. When you understand all these and know about how your surrounding ecosystems function, it is likely that you know your own self. To make the notion more objective oriented, the Bauls, follow ‘know thyself’ in accordance with prophet Mohammad’s “Know thyself to know your Sustainer (of the environment)”.
Lalon says:
Je lila brahmander upor Se lila ai vando majhar
Hale apon janmer bichar sob jante pai.
Aponar janma lata Janga tar multi kotha
Lalon bale pabi setha sain porichoy.
(That what is in the universe (macrocosm) is in the human body ( microcosm). By understanding one's own (mystery of) birth, one can know all. By searching out the root source of one's life’s career, one can lead to a clue towards knowing about the Supreme Lord (the Sain) - says Lalon).
The Bauls believe that God has housed all things of the universe in the human body. This has made human body a microcosm of the universe. They also strongly hold the view that human body is the abode of God while heart is His throne. This assertion inspires Bauls to spiritualise ‘know thyself to know thy Sustainer’. The issue still remains as to how to know what is in the macrocosm? The Baul gurus show the pathway how to know oneself by contemplating about the microcosm.
Lalon reveals:
Se boro ajab kudrati, atharo mokamer majhe jolse ek ruper bati.
Ke bujhe kudrati khela, joler majhe onol jola.
(That is an incredible mystery. A manifesting lamp illuminates the house of 18 dimensions. Who does understand the mysterious play (?) where fire is sustained in water).
Most non-Baul promoters of this view maintain that a qualified master (guru) is essential for teaching about how to ‘know thyself’. This is, of course, true; but it is neither essential nor practical for all the Khalifas and their co-workers (teachers, health workers, religious leaders) at the Ward and Union level. It is reasonably adequate for them if they know how to integrate the management of human and other beings and non-beings on earth for sustainable coexistence. It is not so difficult for the Khalifas as they have spiritualised their acquired stewardship values such as patriotism, simplicity, justice, honesty and eco-spirituality practices in terms of nurturing finite natural resources. But, the Khalifas of the Thana level and above are required to be vigorously trained by the adequately qualified masters of sustainability spirituality. The naturalist Baul gurus and Marfati Pirs of Bangladesh are recognized masters of sustainability sciences.
Guru Aziz Shah Fakir claims that particularly qualified masters who can train the Khalifas for pursuing good governance are rare. The Pirs, priests, monks and Sanyasins with diversified integrity are not currently abundant in the country. That is why we need to find alternative ways. The guru stresses that for a country like Bangladesh where both people and nature are bestowed with multiplicity of cultural, geo-environmental and natural characteristics, the Khalifas can be adequately trained to understand the relationships between human survivability and ecological systems. It is to emphasize that humans are completely dependent on ecological resources for their sustenance, whereas eco-world is unrelated to humans for their self sustainability.
The guru reveals that natural diversity manifests diverse signs for the wise. Thus, nature is the house of knowledge, understanding and the source of acquiring moral values and wisdom. This clearly indicates that pondering about the natural world is essential for attaining stewardship integrity for upgrading people’s morality, happiness and economic self-reliance. In case of any failure on the part of the local Khalifas, they can seek help from the respective Thana Khalifas to take appropriate measure for correction.
In order to provide self-reliance and happiness for people, each Ward Khelafat as part of National Khelafat system, must implement the Dawa program. The guru sings a Dawa song:
Pare ke jabi nabir naukate ai.
Rop kasther nauka khani nai dubar bhoy.
Beshara neye jara
Tufane jabe mara
Ek e dhakkai.
(Ride on to the boat (Tarika) of the Prophet, if one who wishes to go across (the river of life). The boat is made of such a timber (virtues)) that has no fear of drowning. But those who are undisciplined boatman, they will ruin by a single blow).
The guru observes that Islamic original political culture as devised by the Prophet has hopelessly failed to demonstrate its ingeniousness over the global political culture, only due to the lack of maintaining the chain (Silsila) of succession after the fourth Khalifa Hazrat Ali. In fact, this deviation has eventually resulted in the downturn of Islamic governance worldwide; and currently, it has probably reached to its worst. However, the Sufi Islam that is still prominent in Bangladesh has the Tariqat (way) for safeguarding the politicians (Khalifas) who chose to embark on the Prophet’s and the four Khalifas’ Shariah of good governance.
The renowned Fatemolla is the guru of Sharia matters. As a vicegerent of the Creator, he must have moral obligations to outline the implementable Sharia governance of the Prophet and the four Khalifas for the spiritualistic cultural framework of Bangladesh. The Molla can comfortably compile a Sharia-based encyclopedia of good governance in Bangladesh culture where The Jama’ati Aqidah (creed) and Tabligi Aqidah will be left out for their incompatibility. Harun Baul colours them as ‘Beshora Neye’ (the uninitiated boatman). The undisciplined politicians, religious bigots, ignorant pundits and egoistic civil servants who now own in the country’s governance are the Beshora Neye according Harun Baul’s sustainability assessment criteria. Consequently, the political culture in the land of Sufis which has been devoid of the spirit(uality) of Sufism, is justifiably failing to demonstrate the Banglalee cultural ingeniousness over the Western socio-political culture.
However, a new Nauka (boat) is to be built under the guidance of the Tarikat of the Sharia of Khelafat’s good governance system in order to carry out the following sustainability precepts and practices:
1. Practice of Religious and Cultural Values
Culture reflects the colour of a religion. Secularism of Sufi spirituality is prominent in Bangladesh and therefore communal conflict is almost non-existent. Khalafat governance will enrich the culture by wiping out the impurities generated by the Western democracy. Guru Aziz Shah Fakir has the code of life(style), religion and culture – the main aspects of human life. The following examples manifests guidelines for the aspects.
a. Satya bal su pathe chal, o re amar mon.
(O my mind, always tell the truth and remain on the 'Straight Path').
Guru Aziz Shah Fakir says that this is the seed ‘spell’ (mantra) for all religions.
b. The second mantra is:
Manush guru nishtha jar
Shorbo shadhon siddha hoy tar.
(All aspirations are fulfilled if endeavours for learning are guru-centric)
c. Thirdly:
Age ki sundar din kataitam
Gramer naojoan, hindu musalman
Milia bauls gaan ar murshidi gaitam – Baul Abdul Karim shah
(What a delightful time we had in the past. The village youths from the Hindu and Muslim communities used to sing Baul and Mushidi songs together).
There are hundreds of examples in this context that are practical in nature. Whatever we learn needs to be practiced. The Sufi culture requires the Khalifa to ‘learn from the people who know’ and follow the path and doings of the blessed people who are known as the Aulyia or friends of God. Teachings of a wise master or a Khalifa – formally or otherwise – is primarily to teach people how to practice charity, modesty, live simply, honesty, truthfulness, tolerance, respectfulness, trustworthiness, responsibility, discipline, sociality, care taking and nature nurturing. These values can cause to vanish growing corruption, cheating, bestiality and lawlessness as water can extinguish water. The legal framework of the Khelafat governance is to implement the moral principles so that people’s mindset becomes values-driven. The corrective measures are to be provided in order to treat the odds.
2. Fish and tree for everyone
Everyone needs fish and fruit trees. This is achievable should the Ward Khalifas know how to initiate and implement fishing and plantation programs in their respective area. To avail fish and fruits for everyone, watersheds need to be maintained so that they are deep enough to hold knee-level water in the summer as a poem reads:
(ameder soto nodi chole babnke banke;
boishakh mashe tar hatu jol thake)
Fishing, especially the immature, fingerlings and mother fish with eggs must be stopped seasonally, and fish export can be allowed only after meeting the local people’s needs. Plantation for regeneration and restoration of fruit trees in abundance must be done throughout the banks of watersheds and roadside including some timber trees, cane, bamboos and medicinal plants and herbs on the roadsides. If this is implemented, it will not only help avail fruits and meet household needs for those who have no place to grow, but also meet the needs of the present and future healing of illness, it will also ensure environmental sustainability. Perceiving this, Baul Bijoy Sarkar reveals:
Ai prithibi jemon silo, Temoni thik robe
Sundar ai prithibi sere chole jete hobe.
(We are obliged to leave this beautiful earth, keeping the earth in its natural form).
The song implies that one generation should leave this beautiful earth aesthetically and eco-systematically unchanged for meeting the needs of the generations to come; and next generation will be obliged to follow their ancestor’s tradition. This notion is also the core of the concept of sustainable development.
3. Full support for the people willing to work overseas
Almost every family with workable manpower wants to send a family member overseas. The Ward Khalifas can implement this national project giving financial support from the Khalifa’s local development fund to those who are in need. Producing exportable workforce with values, quality and skill is the holy responsibility of the Khalifas. This responsibility will inspire the Ward Khalifas and the candidates (present and future) to introduce adequate logistical support for the same).
4. Facilities for small-scale industrial productivity
This will help families needing extra income. The Khelafat system of governance can launch a revolutionary industrial transformation process towards achieving economic self-reliance as Gandhi propagated. The households can spin, weave and make their own dresses and sell to others. Cotton, jute, silk, wool and other local fibers can be used. This provision can employ a huge amount of workforce including women, children, and the aged. The Khelafat governance can introduce a policy that the country’s local needs for garments are to be wholly produced locally.
5. To narrow down the lifestyle gaps between rich and poor
This can be achieved through a national policy which can motivate the rich or elite class to come closer to the poor in their dress and food habit; addressing poor with respect; and sharing each other’s joy and sorrow. A national policy with wide manifestation of better-off people’s brotherhood/sisterhood mannerism to the ordinary folks (sub-ordinates, employees, servants, labourers); a habit of sharing food, dress, affordable money, and joy and sorrow with the have-nots; the well-offs' visit to poor neighbourhood and hospitals; modest and simple lifestyle in terms of dress - all these will automatically bring down poverty situation both materially and psychologically. Harun Baul asserts that alleviation of poverty is neither possible in the geo-environmental and cultural conditions of Bangladesh, nor it is at all desirable for the sake of a long-term sustainability of the renewable resources of the county. Thus, a poverty-like modest lifestyle is the sustainable direction for Bangladesh. And this applies also for the global sustainability.
6. Self-reliance centric foreign policy
Diplomatic relationship with foreign countries needs to be central to earning foreign currency to assist our self-reliant sustainability in terms of cotton, oil, chemicals, minerals, etc that our country currently lacks. In the wake of declining population growth in the developed countries where the primary schools suffer from the scarcity of the starters and industries are closed down because of the shortage of labour force, it is clear that the present rate of population growth is sustainable if they are properly educated and trained for employment or migration.
Finally, the guru is also concerned about the number of ministries. For a country like Bangladesh where the prevalence of immorality such as corruption, cheating, exploitation, extortion, lawlessness and bestiality is rampant, it is essential that the existing numerous ministries be integrated into a few Apex Ministries; and they are to be controlled by lowly paid or Honorary Executive Khalifas.
In conclusion, Harun Baul suggests that it is crucial for the pro-Khelafat parties such as the Khelafat Majlish to start their work at the grassroots level to find competent Khalifas at the Ward, Union and Thana level. They should also seek support from the Non-Residential Bangladeshi (NRB) for outlining working papers for triggering the Khelafat system of deliberative democratic governance.
(To be continued)
Md. Amzad Hossain
Email: A.Hossain@curtin.edu.au
